Sicily

Sicily

Archimedes taught here and Saint Paul preached. Sicily was a Greek colony, a Roman province, an Arab emirate and a Norman kingdom. The Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Swabians, Angevins and Aragonese made Sicily their own, leaving behind an eclectic history. Sicily is Europe, Africa and Asia on one island. Greek tyrants, Arab emirs, Norman knights, Byzantine bishops and Holy Roman Emperors made Sicily a place that retrains traces of the past in Phoenician settlements, Punic cities, Greek temples, Roman amphitheatres, Norman Arab castles and Aragonese churches. Thirty centuries of history expressed in the Classical, the Romanesque, the Gothic, the Baroque styles of Art.

To the ancient Greeks, Mount Etna was the realm of Vulcan, god of fire, and the home of the one-eyed monster known as the Cyclops. At approximately 3350 meters, it is Europe's highest active volcano. The height of its summit changes with each eruption, and over the centuries a few lava flows have reached the coast. Over 1200 square meters of Etna's surface is covered with solidified lava. Since Etna is a strato volcano, with relatively cool lava temperatures and numerous openings (vents), nobody ever knows precisely where on its vast surface the next eruption will be. Etna's long recorded history has proven invaluable to the world's volcanologists. Various species of oak and stone pine, as well as birch and beech, cover much of its sloped surface.




The Land and Its People

Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean, and until the fourteenth century Sicily was the most important island in Europe. Though the Mediterranean is usually considered a single body of water, Sicily's shores are washed by two of its smaller seas: the Ionian and the Tyrrhenian. Most of the island's surface, covering more than 25,000 square kilometers, is mountainous and hilly, with some level coastal areas and a large plain near Catania. At 3342 meters, Mount Etna is the highest peak, and Europe's largest active volcano. A number of small islands located around Sicily are popular tourist resorts, the volcanic Aeolian (or Lipari) archipelago being the largest group. The extensive coastline ranges from rocky cliffs to sandy beaches, but Sicily also offers other fascinating natural sights such as Alcantara Gorge (near Taormina), various caverns (Carburangeli near Carini and others around Sicily and on the surrounding islands), and the grey mud flows formed by sporadic geysers that give Maccalube, near Aragona, its moonlike appearance. Was Sicily ever attached to Africa or to mainland Italy? It almost certainly was, but even today Sicily is only 3 kilometers from Calabria at the narrows of the Strait of Messina, and just 160 kilometers from the African coast. Prehistoric fossils of large mammals discovered in caverns and during excavations around the island suggest that a land bridge existed in the remotest times. Sicily's most southern point, near Ispica, is farther south than parts of the Tunisian coast.

From Palermo, Catania or Messina, Tunis is closer than Rome, and even today Sicily is important strategically; several NATO and US military bases on the island are ready to respond to any emergency in Northern Africa, the Balkans or the Middle East. In considering the size of the Mediterranean, and the distances traversed by the Sicilians' predecessors (among them the Romans and Normans), it is worth bearing in mind that Jerusalem is farther away than London. All these facts help to explain how and why Sicily came to be a point of convergence between North and South, East and West, between Europe and Africa, but also between the Latin West and the Byzantine East. (However, many Sicilians are descended from forebears who have been here since time immemorial.) There were once extensive forests in the interior, and vestiges of these remain in the Nebrodi mountains near Messina and the Madonie Mountains closer to Palermo, and also in isolated areas such as the Woods of Ficuzza near Corleone. While its mountains and coastline are Sicily's best known natural features, its low hills and flat valleys are quite scenic, too, though the rivers and streams that flow through them are usually dry by July. The Plain of Catania is exceptional; it is a vast alluvial plain with small rivers fed by streams that flow from the slopes of Mount Etna.

The area around Marsala and Trapani is also flat, and so is some of the country around Vittoria, in the south-east of the island. Even today, there are essentially two kinds of communities among the numerous towns and cities of Sicily. Inland towns, usually found in the mountains, comprise the vast majority, and in the past their economies were usually based on livestock and agriculture. The economies of coastal towns were based more on fishing and maritime trade, though agriculture constituted at least a portion of their wealth. These factors obviously influenced the cuisine, customs and, to some extent, mentalities of the inhabitants of these places. Until the twentieth century, somebody who lived in Enna might rarely see the sea or taste its fruits. The country and its lifestyle are still important parts of Sicily's history and culture. The vegetation of Sicily is remarkably diverse. Apart from the great variety of agricultural produce (ranging from citrus fruits to grapes, olives to artichokes, pistachios to mulberries and, in the past, even sugar cane and cotton), numerous trees, flowering shrubs and grasses are native to Sicily, though the cactus (an American import) is not one of these. Much of the wild vegetation, like the palm trees and stone pines, is typically Mediterranean, but certain fir trees are the same species found in much colder climates.

Rarely encountered by visitors, Sicily's fauna is often ignored even by Sicilians. The Sicilian deer is long extinct. The Sardinian deer in the delightful Parco d'Orleans, across from the Norman Palace in Palermo, are similar to the Sicilian deer. There are more foxes than wolves in Sicily; the latter are nearly extinct. There are few hare, but rabbits abound. A few wild cats thrive in the national park on the slopes of Mount Etna and also in remote parts of the Madonie Mountains and several smaller reserves; these regal hunters are similar to the wild cats found in Scotland and in the Pyrenees. The cats survive in Sicily because they live in wooded areas on rugged slopes where few people venture. One still sees the rare beaver or squirrel (one variety of the latter being remarkably similar to the North American chipmunk) in the woods of the Madonie or Nebrodi. The wild boar that has been re-introduced into Sicily is actually a Sardinian variety, but a local species of toad whose body grows to a length of almost 20 centimeters (8 inches) sometimes ventures out into the rains, several varieties of frog inhabit the streams, and several varieties of gecko lizard are ubiquitous. The hedgehog and porcupine (distinct species which appear somewhat similar from a distance) still live in Sicily, though they are only rarely seen. Until the latter decades of the nineteenth century, several species of freshwater fish were found in the island's rivers; most are now extinct but eels are fished in the same streams every Spring. Eagles and falcons, though rare, can sometimes be seen soaring in the thermal currents above the mountains in search of prey, and local varieties of grouse, quail and woodcock live in the fields of the interior. Migratory birds are sometimes seen along the coasts. The best places to see some of this wildlife are the Woods of Ficuzza, which has an animal hospital open to the public, and the national park at Mount Etna. To discover these treasures one must first seek them. In the province of Messina you'll find extensive forests. Elsewhere, throughout much of the provinces of Agrigento, Enna, Caltanissetta and Trapani, a great deal of the land is under cultivation, and the precious woodlands are protected by wire fences. In winter, the occasional snowfall in the highlands paints the fields, olive groves and palm trees a surreal white, but outside the Etna and Madonie (Nebrodi) regions this magical effect usually vanishes in a matter of days.

The People

A human skull found near Agrigento some years ago is 500,000 years old. At the time of its discovery, the skull of the "girl of Mandrascava" was the oldest complete human skull ever found in Europe.Further evidence indicates an organised human presence in Sicily durng the Mesolithic Age (circa 10,000 BC). Drawings found in the Addaura Cavern, beneath the slopes of Mount Pellegrino near Palermo, have been dated to 8000 BC and imply that the neolithic culture that eventually emerged was quite similar to those present in central and western Europe. Yet, we are uncertain whether the first people arrived in Sicily from the North or the South. The culture of the Siculi (Siculians) and Sicani (Sicanians), from whom the island takes its name, began its development around 5000 BC. By about 2000 BC, three principal languages had developed: Sican (Sicanian) in the western part of the island, Elymian in the north-west, and Sicel (Siculian) in the east. Some evidence of these cultures exists. For example, the megalithic temple of "Diana" at Cefalu is probably Sicanian in origin. The Phoenicians began to colonize the area around 900 BC, founding Carthage in North Africa and Mozia, Solunto and Palermo in Sicily. Recent discoveries indicate that the languages spoken by the native Sicilians were quite similar to both Phoenician and Greek. With the arrival of the Greeks, the three Sicilian civilizations were eventually amalgamated with Hellenic culture. The Sicilians of today are said to be a "mixed race" descended from early Sicilians (Sicani, Siculi, Elymi), and the peoples who subsequently conquered or colonized Sicily: Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Byzantine Greeks, Saracen Arabs, Normans, and to some extent Longobards, Goths, Angevin French, Aragonese and Spanish. A number of Sicilians are descended from Albanians who settled in several communities in the sixteenth century. This polyglot heritage has had some interesting results. The Sicilian language (dialect), for example, has various foreign elements, and the dialect spoken in several towns has some Longobardic phrases and syntax. There are several communities settled by Albanians in the fifteenth century where an old form of Albanian is still spoken by some residents. The comparatively large number of redheaded Sicilians is attributed to the island's Norman heritage, and the Normans themselves were at once Scandinavian and French. Compared to Tunisians, quite a few Sicilians have blue eyes, a trait inherited from Norman and Longobard forebears. The Inquisition suppressed Islam and Judaism, but many Sicilian surnames are onomastically Arabic and Hebrew in origin. The Byzantine Rite churches of the Albanian communities, though Roman Catholic today, are rooted in the Orthodox tradition of Albania.

Who were these various colonizers and conquerors? To call them "Indo-European" would be an abstract generality. They were European, Asian and African. There is evidence to suggest that the Sicani were of western European origin, possibily Iberian, while the Siculi may have arrived from mainland Italy, having some of the same roots as certain mainland Italic groups such as the Lucanians. Alternatively, both the Sicani and the Siculi may have been indigenous peoples whose art and culture were influenced by an influx of settlers from these other regions. The Elymi probably arrived in Sicily from the Eastern Mediterranean, and certainly had an early cultural affinity to the Phoenicians and Egyptians. As we've mentioned, the languages of Sicily's three "native" peoples were similar in many ways to Phoenician and Greek. The Phoenicians themselves were a seafaring Semitic people from what is now Lebanon. The Carthaginians were a residual Phoenician civilization in what is now northern Tunisia, and in their travels may have ventured as far as South America. Certain archaeological discoveries in Sicily reflect an Egyptian artistic influence, not surprising since the Phoenicians often called at Egyptian ports. The Greeks, whose alphabet was influenced by that of the Phoenicians, colonized southern Italy to the extent that at one point there were more Greeks (and possibly more Greek temples) in Sicily and the areas south of Rome than in Greece itself. The Sicilians have a rich Mediterranean ethnology. The culture of the Romans owed much to that of the Etruscans they had assimilated (and whose origins are debated), with generous borrowings from the Greeks to the south of Latium. There were brief occupations of Sicily by the Germanic Vandals and Visigoths following the fall of the Empire, and many of the Byzantine Greeks who arrived with Belisarius were from Asia Minor. The Muslim Saracens from Tunisia and the northern part of present-day Libya are sometimes described as "Moors," but the Moors who invaded Spain are more closely identified with the territories which today are Morocco and northern Algeria. At least a few of Sicily's "Saracens" were certainly Egyptians and Persians, and had close contact with Baghdad, the model for their Sicilian city of Bahl'harm (Palermo). The Aghlabid dynasty ruled at first; the subsequent Kalbite Emirs of Sicily were loyal to the Caliph of Egypt.

The Longobards who occasionally visited Sicily were descended from a Christianized Germanic people (somewhat more advanced than the Goths) who invaded northern Italy in the sixth century and ruled most of the peninsula for several hundred years, establishing feudal law in those regions that were not controlled by the Byzantine Empire, especially remote rural areas. Their residual civilization in Italy, the Lombards, gave its name to a region around Milan (Lombardy). The Normans were the residual Norse (Viking) civilization of northwestern France. Their unique ethnic heritage was Celtic and Nordic, and their language was similar to French. Whereas the Norsemen who settled in Normandy in the tenth century had their own mythology and language, their "French" grandchildren were thoroughly Christianized. The ancestral dominion of the Hohenstaufen dynasty was Swabia in what is now southwestern Germany, but many of the "Swabian" knights in Sicily were from the other Germanic territories ruled by Frederick II as Holy Roman Emperor. The so-called "Angevin" knights were actually from various parts of France; Anjou itself was simply the chief dominion of the French royal family, the "House of Anjou." The Aragonese were thoroughly Spanish (even if the Spanish nation itself was yet to be constituted). The Albanians who settled in Sicily were essentially Slavic (and Christian), compared to their modern Albanian cousins, whose heritage is largely Turkic (and Muslim).

Located near the southeastern corner of Sicily on the Ionian coast, Siracusa (Syracuse) is built on an ancient Greek settlement founded by Corinthians in 734 BC. More than any other modern city in Sicily, Syracuse manifests a visible continuity from its ancient Greek past, both historical and mythological. Its older quarter is an island, Ortegia (or Ortygia, from the Greek for "quail," probably named for that bird's abundance in this area). Ortegia is known for, among many other things, the freshwater Spring of Arethusa. When Artemis changed Arethusa into a spring of water to escape the river god Alpheus, it was here that the transformed maiden emerged. On a more factual note, Syracuse was the city of Archimedes, Pindar and Aeschylus. It was the most important city in Magna Graecia, and for a time rivaled Athens as the most important city of the Greek world. Athens, Carthage, Rome. These were the only three cities of the ancient Mediterranean world to challenge the power and prosperity of Syracuse during its Golden Age. Though it was an important city from the time of its foundation, Syracuse flourished unhindered after Hieron's victory (with the help of the Agrigentans) over the Carthaginians at Himera, near present-day Termini Imerese, in 480 BC, and soon became the most important Greek city in Sicily, both economically and politically. It would not be overzealous to say that the history of Hellenistic Sicily is largely the history of Syracuse. Let's consider the city's ancient structures before looking at its medieval treasures. Some of the ancient sights to see in Syracuse are located in Ortegia, which is the medieval city's historic center. Ortegia is reached via the Ponte Nuovo, or "New Bridge." However, most of the more spectacular of the ancient landmarks are on the Teminite Hill, on the city's periphery, in an archeological park near Viale Teracati and Via G. Emanuele Rizzo. Greek and Roman structures are ubiquitous in Syracuse; even a wall of the cathedral was part of a Roman structure, the Temple of Minerva. Located in Ortegia, the Temple of Apollo, or Artemis, is probably the oldest Greek temple in Sicily built in the Doric style, dating from around 565 BC. Unfortunately, only its remains can be seen in Piazza Pancali. Nearby, in Piazza Duomo, the 5th century BC temple known as the Athenaion (and also part of the Temple of Minerva) forms a side of the cathedral. This is one of the few surviving examples in the former Magna Graecia of a temple being turned into a church, though in Rome examples abound. A medieval church at Taormina was also built on the site of an ancient temple, though not in precisely this manner. Closer to the Sea, the Spring of Arethusa, which takes the form of a large round fountain, is reached either from the Foro Italico or Via Capodieci. Among Ortegia's medieval relics is Maniaces Castle, named for the able Byzantine general (George Maniaces) who occupied part of the Ionian coast of Sicily during the 1030s. Most of the medieval structure was actually built during the reign of Frederick II two centuries later, though the fortress has been extensively modified in successive centuries. The city's patron saint, St. Lucy, was martyred near the site of the church of that name, in Piazza San Lucia, in 304. The church itself was built during the Byzantine era, restructured by the Normans during the 12th century but, modified almost beyond recognition in the 17th century. Beneath the church are extensive catacombs. In the Neapolis Archeological Park on the Terminite Hill a clear distinction can be made between the Greek and Roman structures. Siracusa has a Greek amphitheatre (literally carved out of the rock) and also a Roman one, both well preserved. In conformity to tradition, the Greek Theatre is semicircular and open, the Roman one oval and enclosed. This archeological park has some charming surprises, such as the Altar of Geron II and the Ear of Dionysius, formerly a limestone quarry. There is also the Saint Venera Quarry and various necropoli and other caverns. Quarries are not exclusive to Neapolis; there are several elsewhere in Syracuse, such as the Capuchin Quarry in the city. About eight kilometers due west of the city towards the Belvedere locality is Euryalus Castle, an ancient fortification complete with moats and immense walls. It was probably designed, at least in part, by Archimedes, a distinguished military engineer. This vast fortress was remarkable in 401 BC, when it was built, and still magnificent when it was later expanded during Byzantine times. For that matter, it is still impressive today. To the Greeks, it was a defense against Carthaginians and then Romans (it fell to Marcellus due to betrayal rather than siege). To the Byzantines, it was a bulwark against the Saracen threat.

In 309 BC, during the war against the Carthaginians, it held 3000 foot soldiers and 400 horsemen. Euryalus Castle today is may be a shadow of its former self, but it remains one of the few examples of Greek defensive architecture anywhere. The castle itself was part of an extensive defense system that included 27 kilometers of walls around what was one of the largest cities in the Greek world. Dionysius the Elder developed the city in this way to make it safe from any attack. In this he succeeded to a great extent. The Roman Gymnasium is located near off Via Elorina near the Porto Grande (Large Port). Built during the 1st century AD, it included a temple, theatre and court. Located below sea level, it is sometimes flooded. Another Greek settlement, Megara Hyblaea, on the coast about 10 kilometers south of Augusta, is north of Syracuse, conveniently reached by local train via the Megara-Giannalena station. The Regional Archeological Museum, one of Sicily's finest and most modern, displays finds from Megara as well as ancient Syracuse, and is well worth a visit. This structure exhibits archeological treasures in their proper historical context. In many respects, it is superior to Palermo's Archeological Museum, though the collections are actually somewhat different. It is located on the grounds of Villa Landolina off Via Teocrito, near Saint John's Abbey. Syracusa's medieval heritage mustn't be overlooked. A few sights stand out. Saint John's Abbey (on Via San Giovanni) was largely destroyed during an earthquake in 1693, but parts of the church's facade and cloister courtyard still stand. The catacombs are interesting, and the Crypt of Saint Marcian offers a glimpse into the Paleo Christian era. The Bellomo Palace, on Via Capodieci, was built as a castle during the 13th century and restructured in the Catalan Gothic style during the 15th. It houses the Art Gallery, whose collection includes Caravaggio's Burial of Saint Lucy, Antonello da Messina's Assumption, and other notable works. Palazzo Montalto, near Piazza Archimede, was built in 1397 in the so-called "Chiaramonte Gothic" style; its arched windows resemble those of Palermo's Steri, built in the same style almost a century earlier. The Fountain of Artemis in Piazza Archimede is attractive, though perhaps overrated in such a monumental city as this one.

Church of Saint John and the Church of Eremetii

Located near the Royal Palace, the Abbey Church of St. John of the Hermits (San Giovanni degli Eremiti) is another fine example of 12th century Norman-Arab construction here in Palermo. That it was built upon a mosque may account for its particularly Arabic style, with five reddish cupolas. (Incidentally, we do not know for certain whether these cupolas were originally red.) The bell tower is the only part of the building that has a distinctively Norman appearance, with its Gothic lines and mullioned windows. Were it not for the bell tower, Saint John's could easily be mistaken for a mosque.

The construction of St. John of the Hermit's was ordered by Roger II in 1130 for the Benedictine Order. St. John's visual impact results mostly from its external features, with its charming Arabesque domes amidst the surrounding trees and gardens, and an elegant cloister, probably a 13th century addition constructed in the Romanesque style, though it combines harmoniously with the Church and its surrounding gardens. The Church of St. John of the Hermits is open Mondays through Saturdays from 9 to 1 and 3 to 7. On Sundays, the Church is only open in the morning from 9 to 1. There is a nominal admission fee.

Palermo

Monreale, from "Mons Regalis" (Royal Mountain), is a town of some 25,000 residents located on the slope of Mount Caputo (764 Meters) about 7 kilometers south of Palermo's center. Monreale overlooks the "Conca d'Oro," the beautiful valley beyond Palermo, and the town itself is situated at an altitude of roughly 300 Meters above sea level. No trip to Palermo is truly complete without a visit to Monreale. Monreale is world-renowned for its cathedral, a dazzling mixture of Arab, Byzantine and Norman artistic styles framed by traditional Romanesque architecture, all combined in a perfect blend of the best that both the Christian and Muslim worlds of the 12th century had to offer. to view some elements of Sicilian church architecture. The beautiful mosaics in Monreale Cathedral are said to be one of the world's largest displays of this art, surpassed only by Istanbul's famous Basilica of Saint Sofia, once an Orthodox church. (Unfortunately, many of those beautiful mosaics were destroyed when the Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453.) Monreale's mosaics emblazon 6,340 square meters of the duomo's interior surface, more than those of the splendid church of Saint Mark in Venice. The mosaics of "Santa Maria la Nuova," the official name of Monreale Cathedral, are far more extensive than those of the cathedral of Cefalu, and while the mosaics of the Palatine Chapel in Palermo's Norman Palace are of equally exquisite craftsmanship, the latter convey the sense of an elaborate work of art stuffed into a tiny house. In contrast, the mosaics of Monreale's duomo are grandiose, covering practically every inch of the vast interior. The splendid cloister of the Benedictine abbey alone would make Monreale famous. Located next to the cathedral, these 228 columns, some with mosaic inlay, each with a meticulously stone carved capital, enclose the gardens of the cloister.

The capitals themselves depict scenes in Sicily's Norman history, complete with knights and kings. The style of the Norman knight figures evokes that of the knights depicted in the Bayeaux Tapestry, a chronicle of the Battle of Hastings. Historians have determined the date of the introduction of heraldry (coats of arms) in Sicily by the shields of the Monreale knight figures, which lack any heraldic decoration. The history of Monreale can be summed up in the name of one man: King William II "The Good." The last of the Norman Kings of Sicily was the grandson of the illustrious Roger II. Prior to the construction of Santa Maria la Nuova, it is believed Monreale was a tiny Saracen hamlet named "Ba'lat," where local farmer's would gather to cart their produce to the market, or "souk," down in Palermo. That outdoor market still exists to this day and is known as Ballar˜. It is possible that Ballar˜'s name derives from an Arabic phrase meaning "Ba'lat Market." During the Norman dominion, Ba'lat, soon to be renamed Monreale, became a favorite hunting ground of the Hauteville monarchs. In those days, deer, boar and wild cats still roamed Sicily, where there were more forests than today, and falconry was popular among the aristocracy. Walter of the Mill, the English bishop of Palermo, was the head of faction of nobles who sought to influence and control the young king into granting them more power and lands. This faction also wanted to lessen the power and number of the many Muslim ministers and functionaries in William's court. Walter had been William's tutor when the king was a child and during his mother's regency. William was just 13 years old when his father, William I, died in 1166, and until he reached his majority in 1171 he was subject to the regency of his mother, Margaret of Navarre. However, the kingdom was actually controlled by Matthew d'Ajello, the royal vice-chancellor, and Walter, the bishop of Palermo, the latter having attempted to exert undue influence on the William as his tutor. The young sovereign wished to demonstrate his independence through the construction of a grand cathedral. The first of King William's objectives was to establish himself firmly as sovereign. William had only been crowned in 1171 when he turned eighteen; he was 21 when the construction of the cathedral was begun. The second reason King William wanted the cathedral built was to impress on his subjects, especially the Muslims, the power and riches of his monarchy. William II wanted to inculcate the sense of rule by divine right upon his subjects, thus the cathedral's mosaic of Christ crowning William king. Many Muslims from Palermo had fled to the hill country surrounding the capital after a rebellion against William's father in 1161. Led by Matthew Bonello, the Norman-Sicilian nobility had begun to support an anti-Arab policy, leaving the Saracens to establish themselves in easily-fortified towns such as San Giuseppe Jato, Corleone and Cinisi, though they were nominally loyal to King William. The site of the duomo and the Benedictine monastery attached to it was strategically well-placed for controlling the passes that served as the gateway to these communities.

The nearby castle of Castellaccio bolstered this military strategy. Though little of the monastery except the cloister has survived to the present, the monastery of Monreale originally boasted twelve embattled towers and thick walls, features that would have allowed the structure to be rapidly transformed into fortress if need be. A few of the towers are still visible. The Arabs did eventually rebel, after King William's death, in reaction to the mistreatment and excessive taxation imposed upon them by the Abbot of Monreale, under whose feudal they had been placed by William II and the Pope. Monreale Cathedral itself was attacked by the Muslims on several occasions, the worst attack occurring in 1216. However, the "rebellions" were never a serious threat to the Christian rule of Sicily. In 1246, Frederick II Hohenstaufen dispatched a large army from Palermo to put an end to this once and for all. Frederick's army captured Corleone and besieged the Saracen castle at San Giuseppe Jato for nearly two years until it yielded, when it was razed. Another reason for William II's construction of the cathedral was his desire to establish the Roman Catholic Church, known as the "Latin" church in those days, as the official Church of Sicily. There were still many Orthodox Christians and Muslims in 12th century Sicily. Although Orthodoxy was permitted and Islam tolerated, King William embraced Papal authority. Pope Alexander III granted the Abbot of the Benedictine Monastery episcopal privileges in 1174, and elevated Bishop Teobald to the rank of archbishop in 1183. The installment of a bishop in Monreale who owed his position both to the Pope and King William II, and who, as an outsider, had no stake in local politics, neatly accomplished the Pope's political purposes. Work on the cathedral was started in 1174. In 1177, at the age of 24, King William married Joan, daughter of King Henry II of England. The wedding made William the brother-in-law of two other noted English monarchs, Richard I "The Lionheart" and John "Lackland, Joan's brothers and Henry's sons. In 1170, William's father-in-law had instigated the murder of Thomas ˆ Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. Canonized in 1173, Saint Thomas Becket is depicted in a mosaic icon of the cathedral's main apse near the altar. This is believed to be the first public work of art honoring the English saint. Though William II wanted his realm to be a Catholic one, he engaged in some practices somewhat unusual for a Christian monarch of the Middle Ages. Not only did he have many Muslim ministers, astrologers and doctors in his court, William is said to have kept a harem in his palace, and to have spoken, read and written Arabic.

Most of the major work on the Monreale Cathedral was finished before William II's death at 36 in 1189. Externally, most of Monreale Cathedral is not particularly striking. Its front facade faces west, looking onto Piazza Guglielmo. Two massive square bell towers flank the main church entrance. The portico is not an original part of the structure. The sides of the cathedral are approximately 105 meters long. From Via Arcivescovado, a street behind the cathedral, can be seen the intricate stonework of the apse. The cathedral's two main doors are outstanding. The double doors are made of bronze, signed and dated by their maker, Bonanno of Pisa who completed this masterpiece, distinctively Romanesque, in 1186. The portals are divided into 42 panels. Bas relief panels which depict various scenes from the Old and New Testaments, and are only opened for weddings held in the cathedral and other festive and ceremonial occasions. The side portal was also built in 1186, by the artist Barisano da Trani. This door, also of bronze, has 28 panels on which are carved various religious figures amidst floral and other symbolic motifs. The door frame itself is a very Arabic and dazzling mosaic of geometric patterns. The floor plan of the cathedral combines elements of both a traditional Western (Latin) basilica and an Eastern (Orthodox) one. The combination of Greek and Latin elements is a distinct feature of Norman architecture in Italy. The cathedral has a wide central nave and two smaller aisles or naves, one on each side of the main nave. Nine monolithic columns of gray granite support the eight Arabic-style pointed arches on each side of the central nave, for a total of 18 columns, each column having a Corinthian style capital. Each individual capital is sculpted with a different motif featuring religious figures and symbols. Only one of the 18 columns is not made of gray granite, the first column on the right of the front entrance, which is made of "Cipollina" marble. The roof of the cathedral is made of wood, meticulously carved and painted, and its style shows a strong Saracen influence. The present roof is a restored reproduction dating from 1811, when the original roof was severely damaged in a fire. However the current roof is as faithful a reproduction as possible, some scholar scholars maintain it is virtually identical to the original roof. The floor of the church is composed of white Taormina marble with multi-colored granite and porphyry patterns and borders. It was laid out between 1561-1569 by the Palermitan craftsman, Baldassare Massa. The dazzling mosaics in the interior of Monreale Cathedral are what make the church world-famous. Their splendid and delicate beauty creates an atmosphere of indescribable tranquility, solemnity and awe. The mosaics cover practically all the surfaces of the cathedral's walls, excepting the ground level, up to a height of two meters, where the walls are finished in white marble bordered with inlaid polychrome decorations. All of the duomo's mosaic figures (most are icons) are placed upon a background of gold mosaic "tesserae" (tiles). The interior of the church is about 100 meters long by 40 meters wide.

There are a total of 130 individual mosaic scenes depicting biblical and other religious events. The Old Testament is portrayed upon the walls of the central nave, starting from the Creation and ending with Jacob's Fight with the Angel. The mosaics on the side aisles illustrate the major events of the life of Jesus, from His birth to the Crucifixion, and include a cycle which portrays the miracles worked by Christ. Most of the mosaics are accompanied by written inscriptions in Latin or Greek. The masterpiece and key representation of the whole cycle is the domineeringly majestic Christ Pantocrator (All Powerful) located on the central apse over the main altar. The entire image is 13 meters across and seven meters high. Beneath the stupendous portrait of Jesus is a mosaic of the Mother of God enthroned with the Christ child on her lap. This depiction is flanked by mosaics of the angels and various saints and apostles. There are mosaics of various other saints and scenes from the Gospels all about the transept area, including the previously-mentioned tribute to Saint Thomas Becket. Two noteworthy mosaics are located on the sides of the presbytery, over the Royal and Episcopal thrones. The one over the Royal throne shows Christ crowning William II. It is similar to the icon in the Martorana (in Palermo) showing Roger II crowned by Christ. The mosaic over the Episcopal throne shows William II offering Monreale Cathedral to the blessed Virgin. Rarely in the West were living monarchs represented in a Heavenly setting in a public work of art. Monreale Cathedral also houses several royal tombs. King William II's mortal remains rest in the white marble tomb dating from 1575. William's father, King William I "the Bad" lies in the reddish porphyry tomb which dates to the 12th century and is, presumably, his original tomb. William II's mother, Margaret of Navarre, is also interred at Monreale. Except for some foundations and external walls, the cloister is the only part of the monastery that has survived intact to the present. It is laid out in a perfect square, measuring 47 by 47 meters on each side, consisting of a covered walkway encircling the square garden. The walk is buttressed by 104 pointed arches supported by 228 twin columns of white marble. The capitals of the columns are an amazing variety of meticulously sculpted refigurations of scenes from the Bible, lives of the Saints, Norman knights in action, gargoyles, and floral motifs. The crowning glory of the cloister is the Arabic fountain in the southwest corner. The fountain is almost a mini-cloister within the cloister, surrounded by its own four-sided colonnade. The "belvedere" is also worth visiting. Affording a panoramic view of Palermo, the Belvedere is reached through a courtyard near the cloister. The entrance to the Antevilla and the Belvedere is located at the southwest corner of the piazza, passing through an archway.

Proceed about twenty meters through this courtyard to another archway which brings you to the Belvedere and its spectacular view of Palermo and the Conca d'Oro, the valley below Monreale. There is also a small museum on the north side of the Belvedere, featuring works by contemporary Sicilian artists.

Taormina

Taormina was settled by the people of nearby Naxos, an older Greek settlement, around 395 BC, on a Siculian city. These early residents had fled the tyranny of Dionysius the Elder, who eventually conquered Taormina anyway, in 392 BC. The city was named Tauromenion in 358 BC, and figured prominently in the regional politics of the next two centuries. The city supported Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, against Syracuse in 278 BC. It was from Taormina that he conducted his Sicilian campaign, with the aid of some ten thousand troops. Yet, Taormina was one of the first Sicilian cities to support Rome during the Punic Wars. Eunus took the city during the slave revolt, and when the Romans finally occupied the city they massacred thousands of slaves. Taormina flourished in the time of Julius Caesar, only to suffer under Octavian, who retaliated against the city for its support of Pompey by expelling most of its inhabitants and offering their homes to Roman soldiers. Prosperity followed for the Romans of Taormina. Ovid wrote of the "sweet mullet and tender eel" of Taormina's waters. Writing in the first century, Pliny the Elder praised Taormina's wines. The city's splendor, so evident even today, survived the fall of the Roman Empire, but her importance diminished. The castle atop Mount Tauro was probably built by the Saracens on an older Byzantine structure, and later enlarged by the Normans. Though it is only about 200 meters above sea level, Taormina seems much higher. The Greek amphitheatre was built in the third century BC, and expanded by the Romans, who enlarged the stage and added a partial roof (now destroyed). Reserved seating existed even in Greek times; a seat bears the inscription of the name of Philistide, wife of Hieron II of Syracuse. The view of Mount Etna and the sea beyond the theatre is breathtaking. The theatre is the site of dramatic performances during Summer; the seasons alternate with those of Segesta, the site of Sicily's other large Greek amphitheatre. The odeon (odeum), a much smaller Roman theatre, is located near the Church of Saint Catherine (Santa Caterina), which obscures it. Beneath the church was a temple dedicated to Zeus. Such temples were gradually converted to churches with the introduction of Christianity; the cathedral of Syracusa is another example of this phenomenon. Indications of Taormina's ancient street plan are evident, and Roman mosaic floors have been found in the ancient villas in the area. Even Palazzo Corvaia, built during the fourteenth century, was constructed on Roman foundations. Taormina has a good archeological museum (near the amphitheatre), though many of the city's more important finds are housed elsewhere. Taormina's streets retain much of their medieval flavor, as do several of the churches and villas. There are also some charming Baroque and recent structures. There has been a British presence, and a charming Anglican church, at Taormina for many years. D.H. Lawrence (1885-1930) lived nearby, and based his novella "Lady Chatterly's Lover" on local events. The castle (in the Castelmola district) overlooks the city. It affords a spectacular view, though it is somewhat distant from Taormina and is not particularly well preserved. The scenic Alcantara Gorge is located about a twenty minute drive south and west of Taormina on the Alcantara River off Route 185. Volcanic activity created the beautiful basalt formation. Naxos, one of Sicily's oldest Greek cities, is located just a few kilometers from Taormina (in the locality known as Giardini-Naxos) near Cape Schis˜. Little remains here except for structural foundations and the pavement stones of ancient streets, but Naxos was once a flourishing city much larger than ancient Taormina. It was founded by the Chalcidensians as Sicily's first Greek colony in 735 BC.

Sicilian Ceramic Art

The Sicilian ceramic master's craft is deeply rooted in time. This timeless art has flourished for millennia, perfectly expressing the essence of Mediterranean culture. Shapes, colours and motifs born of a profound respect for the past with an eye to the future. Terra cotta harvested from the earth and caressed by the Sicilian sun. A Piece of Sicily Like any other unique work of art, a ceramic piece begins with an idea. That idea is the vision of an individual artist. Then there's the material. The clay found in each region of the world is unique. Sicilian clay, used in terra cotta earthenware over the millennia, is different from the clay of Mexico or Mongolia because it contains a combination of silicates unique to Sicily. This clay, freshly mined from the Sicilian mountains and valleys, is molded by hand by ceramic masters, and then left to dry under the sun. The object is then painstakingly painted in ornate motifs with rich glazes before being fired (baked) in a kiln. During this last phase of creation, something miraculous happens. In the heat, the sun-dried clay hardens to become terra cotta and then crystallizes into ceramic. Its molecular structure changes, becoming firmer but also more durable. The glazed enamel also crystallizes, actually binding to the ceramic as it assumes a deeper, more distinct color. There are, of course, various decorative ceramic products made in Sicily and sold around the world. Bearing whimsical or even gaudy motifs, these products are sometimes signed with an artist's name but actually painted by generic workers, many of whom aren't even Sicilian. Finding ceramic art that reflects Sicily's true artistic heritage isn't always easy. You may have to search for it. Caltagirone, Santo Stefano di Camastra and Monreale are Sicily's most famous ceramic centers.

Ceramic, terra cotta, maiolica, china, porcelain. What do these terms really mean? To many of us, the very word "ceramic" conjures images of plain wall tiles like the ones in our kitchens. The word "ceramics" brings to mind molded clay articles sold in craft shops. While neither perception is actually incorrect, each reflects only a very small facet of the world of ceramics. In its most general sense, "ceramic," from the Greek keramos (potter's clay), describes a vast array of artistic techniques leading to the creation of items fashioned from hardened or baked clay. By Any Other Name Terra cotta (Italian for "baked earth") is a process of baking or partially baking clay objects to make them brittle and water-resistant. Known as earthenware, the clay pottery of ancient Egypt was terra cotta of this type. Since the color and chemical composition of clay varies from place to place, depending on its "clay minerals" (such as silicates), the earthenware of Persia was a different substance from that of Spain. When the clay is fully baked (fired) at a higher temperature, resulting in an opaque material, it is referred to simply as "ceramic" or "stoneware." If the clay is mixed with feldspar or steatite before baking, the resulting ceramic material is known as porcelain. In general, ceramic is a shade of brown or "terra cotta" even after firing, and somewhat coarse (granular) in consistency. Porcelain is usually rather translucent, with a white or gray color and a more refined (less granular) texture. As its name implies, the porcelain known as "china" was originally made exclusively in China. The best known European porcelain is called Capodimonte, after the Italian town where it is still made today. Porcelain is a form of ceramic, but not all ceramic is porcelain. Majolica, from the Italian for "Majorca," refers to the form of ceramic earthenware made in Italy that is painted with tin oxide glazing enamels before being fired to a reflective, durable finish. Most of the ceramic art sold in Sicily today is majolica. However, "majolica" (or maiolica) is a rather recent term. Since the Dawn of History To discover the origins of Sicilian ceramic art we must look to the dawn of the island's history. The Sicanians, an ancient Sicilian people, were making terra cotta objects more than three millennia ago. Their art was developed further under the conquering Phoenicians and the colonizing Greeks. The Romans' arrival in Sicily brought a certain Etruscan influence to the Sicilian ceramic masters' art. In the Middle Ages, Byzantine and then Saracen (Moorish) styles and techniques made their influence felt. Sicily is said to be the most conquered island in the world. Not surprisingly, therefore, each of a dozen civilizations have left their mark on its art. It was probably the thirteenth-century Spaniards of Aragon who first referred to colored Sicilian ceramic objects as "maiolica" because the glazing and firing techniques used to create these pieces were similar to those used on Majorca, the largest of the Balearic Islands. This was a logical choice of terms, since it was the Moors who brought majolica to both Sicily and Spain. One of the things that made medieval maiolica so obviously different from the terra cotta stoneware of the ancient Greeks was its glazing technique. The glazes used in majolica are usually viscous tin oxide colors applied over a white imprimatura ("ground"). Apart from its chemical composition, the characteristic that makes majolica different from porcelain is its relatively low firing temperature. Majolica was probably introduced into the Arab world sometime during the ninth century, around the time the Moors conquered Sicily. This early majolica probably reflected the Arabs' attempts to reproduce Chinese (and Mongolian) porcelain; the painted white ground may have been an effort to duplicate porcelain's naturally light color. In the Mediterranean world, the result was majolica, an art that may be said to combine the best features of both terra cotta and porcelain.

Agrigento

Located on a plateau overlooking Sicily's southern coast, Agrigento was founded as Akragas around 582 BC by a group of colonists from Gela, who themselves were the immediate descendants of Greeks from Rhodes and Crete. The area was inhabited much earlier; a female skull (that of the "girl of Mandrascava") found near Cannatello is half a million years old. A Mesolithic village at Point Bianca, farther down the coast toward Montechiaro Castle, dates from 6000 BC. Akragas was renamed Agrigentum by the Romans, and Girgenti by the Saracens, only to be christened Agrigento in 1927, but the place is the same.

The medieval city of Agrigento is not without a certain charm. High in historical center city, Romanesque Gothic cathedral, built during fourteenth century, still displays some its character, as does thirteenth-century Church San Nicola. Unfortunately, Saracen fortress believed to have stood at has test time. Greek temples, theatres and ruins, even archaeological museums, are located outside proper.

Akragas, named for the nearby river, flourished under Phalaris (570-554 BC), and developed further under Theron (488-471 BC), whose troops participated in the Battle of Himera in 480 BC, defeating the Carthaginians. Agrigento was destroyed several times during the Punic Wars, suffering particularly extensive damage during a siege by Roman forces in 261 BC, but always rebuilt. The Greek poet Pindar (518-438 BC) described Akragas as "the most beautiful city of the mortals." Akragas' most famous citizen was the philosopher and scientist Empedocles (490-430 BC).

In the Valley of the Temples are the ruins of numerous temples but also necropoli, houses, streets and everything else one would expect to find in an ancient city. There is a small amphitheatre, as well as several auditoria, and a fine archeological museum. Unfortunately, most of the temples at Agrigento are in ruins, with pieces strewn about, and several appear to have never even been completed. Part of the Temple of Juno, built around 450 BC, is still intact. Its style has been compared to that of the temples at Paestum, near Salerno. The Temple of Concord (named retroactively), built around 440 BC, is in far better condition, and at night the illuminated temple is a sight to behold. A number of telamons (large segmented stone columns in the form of human figures) have been preserved.

Agrigento's importance declined under the Byzantines and Saracens, who encouraged settlement of the medieval city (present-day Agrigento) several kilometers from the Valley of the Temples. The Normans, however, recognized its importance, and it was during the Norman rule that beautiful churches were constructed in and around the city.

Ancient Agrigento's architectural character seems more Greek than Roman, though the latter is certainly evident. What's missing are the thin bricks so typical of Roman sites like Solunto and Taormina. Despite its location virtually in the shadow of a modern city, the Valley of the Temples is surrounded by olive groves and almond orchards that render its ambience altogether natural, though a number of illegally-built houses mar the landscape. The almond blossom festival held in February is a spectacular event.

The ruins of a Roman villa are located at an archeological site a few kilometers up the coast from Porto Empedocle. Though Porto Empedocle itself is today little more than an ugly shipping town, there is a nice beach nearby. The birthplace of Luigi Pirandello, (1867-1937) a Nobel prize-winning author, is located in the tiny hamlet of Caos, where his house is a museum.