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Knowledge Bases, Including Theories, Research,
the Wisdom of Practice, and Education Policies
Initial
level. The conceptual
framework
serves as a guide
for fulfilling our vision of preparing "caring, professional
educators for a diverse and democratic society." Following
are definitions and examples of research and professional
literature that form the foundation or knowledge base
for the conceptual framework.
Eastern
Michigan University teacher preparation programs
aim
to produce caring educators who are committed to
all
students' learning within supportive learning-communities.
We aim to develop teachers who are student-focused
and
persistent in pursuing high and appropriate expectations
for all students. Our conceptual framework model is
predicated on the belief that teachers must be caring
individuals who do what is in the best interest of
students,
the recipients of our care (Noddings, 2001). The caring
teacher demonstrates relations of care in a variety
of situations. The caring relation is described by Noddings
(2001) as "a connection or encounter between
two human
beings" (p. 16). It is an encounter that begins
with
attentive behavior or recognition of the need of another
and leads to motivational displacement (interest in
helping others), and finally to response from the cared-for
that signals that the care has been received. Caring
teachers listen and respond to students in different
ways. They create, maintain and enhance positive relations
with students and help students develop the capacity
to care.
Another proponent of the need for creating
caring
relationships in schools is James P. Comer, the founder
of the School
Development Program. Comer (1989) emphasizes the importance
of social context in teaching and learning. He notes
that there is nothing more important to success in schools
than the quality of relationships among students and
teachers.
Additionally, he notes that "positive relationships are
at the heart of the learning process" (p. 43). He describes
positive relationships as a "connectedness" that can
be observed in effective classrooms, a "same page behavior," that
consists of positive, complementary teacher-student
behaviors and interactions that lead to successful teaching
and learning.
Another
researcher who recognizes that teachers
must be caring individuals is Lisa Delpit (1995). In
describing
exemplary teachers, Delpit (1995) speaks of the need
for
teachers to be caring. She notes that the development
of a strong bond or affiliation with the teacher is
a
strong motivational factor in achievement for many
students.
Gay
(2000) describes characteristics of
caring
teachers. She notes that caring teachers are distinguished
by their
high performance expectations, advocacy, and empowerment
of students, as well as by their use of pedagogical
practices
that facilitate success. Caring teachers also reflect
a humanistic orientation to students and other members
of the school community (Glasser, 1993). They are child-centered
as
well as subject-centered. They nurture and facilitate
growth and self-esteem. Their teaching is culturally
responsive because they are able to connect with students
regardless
of racial, ethnic, social, and behavioral characteristics.
Culturally responsive caring places "teachers
in
an ethical,
emotional, and academic partnership with ethnically
diverse
students, a partnership that is anchored in respect,
honor, integrity, resource sharing, and a deep belief
in the
possibility of transcendence" (Gay, 2000, p.
52). Culturally
responsive caring is also "a moral imperative,
a social
responsibility and a pedagogical necessity" (Gay,
2000,
p.109). It requires teachers to have cultural
knowledge
about diverse groups and to use this knowledge
to redesign
teaching and learning so that their teaching is
truly
culturally responsive.
Researchers
recognize that the caring behaviors
of teachers can lay the foundation for school improvement.
Pena and
Amrein (1999) note that attention to caring provides
an additional layer of understanding to a discussion
of
effective
classroom management practices. They suggest that effective
classroom management should begin with teachers showing
compassion and an ethic of care. Larrivee (2000) recommends
that educators extend the concept of caring to include
the school as a caring community where caring is a
goal
in itself. The fundamentals of this caring community
would include 1) respect for students; 2) authenticity
and honesty
in communication; 3) thoughtfulness and consideration
of student needs, wants, desires and fears; and 4)
emotional
integrity that includes dealing with student needs
and
validating student feelings. And, finally, Ferreira
and
Bosworth (2000) suggest that schools should address
the
affective behavior of students including the adoption
of a goal of caring that would require that parents
get
involved in the functioning of the school and that
students
experience caring through participation in service-learning
projects. The goal of caring may help foster the most
important goal of education to produce competent, caring
and lovable people who contribute to the social good
at home and in the world (Nodding, 2000).
Eastern
Michigan University teacher preparation programs aim to
produce professional educators who are knowledgeable
regarding content, pedagogy, and educational technologies. Each
program in the teacher preparation program at Eastern
Michigan University is grounded in a knowledge base derived
from research, theory, and the "wisdom of practice." Each
program has an established content knowledge base
specific to the field, and a professional knowledge
base
that includes the social, cultural, historical,
and philosophical content.
There are a number of researchers who make
the
claim that teachers must be knowledgeable of both the
subject
matter that they plan to teach and exemplary teaching
pedagogy (Grossman, Wilson & Shulman, 1989; Murray & Porter,
1996; Thornton, 2000). Shulman (1987) emphasizes that
while subject matter should occupy a central place in
the knowledge base for teaching, teachers must also
have the ability to transform subject matter knowledge.
Transforming
subject matter knowledge requires that teachers have
knowledge of the substance and syntax of their discipline,
knowledge
of learners and learning, knowledge of curriculum and
context, knowledge of aims and objectives, and knowledge
of pedagogy. Darling-Hammond (1994) also concludes that
teachers must possess both pedagogical and content knowledge
of their discipline in order to support and foster quality
education for all students.
Loewenberg
(2000) notes that subject matter and
pedagogy have been divided in the conceptualization
and
curriculum
of teacher education. He emphasizes the need for teachers
to integrate subject matter knowledge and pedagogy
in
the context of their work. Teachers must reach all
students,
teach in multicultural settings, and work in environments
where they must represent ideas in multiple ways. It
is imperative that teachers know content and effective
pedagogy,
and make use of this knowledge to help all students
learn.
Armour and Fernandez-Balboa (2001) also note that professional
educators must understand teaching as a process of
making
a myriad of meaningful connections to and between subject
matters, methods and persons. This is a life-long process
of professional learning.
It is also imperative that professional
educators
understand how children learn and develop, and that they
provide
learning opportunities that support the intellectual,
social, and personal development of children (Bjorklund,
1997; Bowerman, M. & Levinson, S. 2000; Crawford,
P. D. 2001; Damon, W. 1999; Eisenberg, N, 1998; Nucci,
L. 2001).
It is critical that professional educators
have
knowledge and skills in effective instructional design
and classroom
organization and management. Professional educators must
have knowledge of a wide variety of research-based instructional
strategies. They should also know and use alternative
forms of assessment to monitor student progress and evaluate
student learning. (Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl,
D. R., 2001; Airisian, P. 2000; Danielson, C. 1996;
Dede,
C., 1998; Evertson, C., Emmer, E. T., & Worsham,
M. E., 2002; Henson, K. T., 2001; Johnson, W. D. & Johnson,
R. T. 1999; Weinstein, C. E., 1996).
Professional
educators must
know and use
educational technologies
to support the
teaching-learning
process. Technology
can increase
student engagement,
motivation and
achievement;
and carefully
designed instruction
with integrated
technology can
positively affect
student achievement
(Dede, C., 1998;
Means, B., & Golan,
S. 1998; Roschelle,
J. M., et al.
2000).
Technology
can also be used to engage and facilitate
thinking and knowledge construction (Jonassen, D. H.,
et al., 2003). Technology can be used to represent
the
ideas, understandings and beliefs of the learner. It
can be used as an information vehicle for exploring
knowledge
to support learning. It can provide a context to support
learning by doing as the learner represents and simulates
meaningful real-world problems, situations and contexts.
Technology can also be used as a social medium to support
learning by conversing. Discussions, collaboration,
consensus
building can be facilitated through the use of technology.
Finally, technology can be an intellectual partner
to
support learning (Jonassen, 2000). It can be used to
help
learners articulate and represent what they know, reflect
on what they have learned, and construct personal representations
of meaning.
Because technology can impact meaningful
learning
in so many ways, it has been carefully integrated into
all
teacher preparation programs. Courses and experiences
with educational technology help candidates understand
the role that technology can play in supporting meaningful
learning in schools (Duffy, T. M., & Cunningham,
1996; Johassen, D. H. 2000; Healy, J. 1998; Web-based
Education
Commission, 2000).
Eastern Michigan University teacher
preparation
programs aim to produce educators who are reflective
in their practice. Teacher preparation programs at Eastern Michigan University
are grounded in practice to enable candidates to learn
what the real world of teaching is all about. Candidates
observe models of exemplary practice and tap the wisdom
of experienced professionals. Candidates also redefine
their professional knowledge as they act and interact
in their professional contexts. They develop an awareness
of initial and changing knowledge about pupils and classrooms,
reconstruct ideas about themselves as teachers, develop
a repertoire of effective teaching practices and grow
in reflection and problem-solving.
Constructivist
research that emphasizes the role
of direct experience through environmental interactions
(Brooks,
1999; Fosnot, 1996) and the process-product research
into the act of teaching and learning (Schon, 1987)
provide
the research underpinnings for this part of the conceptual
framework.
We believe that a reflective professional
actively
inquires into the process of student learning (Zeichner & Liston,
1996). Interpretations, judgments and decisions of such
a person are based on a wide variety of variables including
content knowledge, content-specific pedagogy, research
into teaching and learning, social and political contexts,
personal philosophy and experiences (Shulman, 1989).
These variables include but extend beyond the technical
aspects
of teaching to encompass social and ethical considerations
(Van Manen, 1997).
We
also believe that reflective professionals think about
their behaviors and experiences in the context of the
educational environment and that they engage in reflective
thinking that includes three elements; a) a cognitive
element which includes how they process and organize information
in their planning and decision making; b) a critical element
which considers people's experiences, goals, and values
within a social context; and c) a narrative element which
concerns their personal interpretation of events situated
within particular contexts (Colton, A., Sparks-Langer,
G., 1993; Langer, G., Colton, A. & Goff, L., 2003).
We recognize the role that reflection can play in helping
teachers reframe, reinterpret, and articulate their understandings
and beliefs in light of new experiences and information.
Finally, we know that reflection is a source
of
personal and professional growth that is critical to
effective
teaching (Black, R, Sileo, T. & Prater, M., 2000).
Webb (2000) notes that reflective activities help preservice
teachers "interrogate deeply held beliefs about teaching
and learning and frequently replace beginning teachers'
prior beliefs with more productive and equitable conceptions
of instruction" (p. 2). Reflective teaching attempts
to move teachers toward greater awareness of the reasons,
motives, values and pressures that direct and influence
their pedagogy. Most important, as reported by Chase,
Germundsen and Brownstein (2000), when teachers engage
in reflective teaching, there are specific benefits
for
student learning including improved classroom management,
student organization, teacher confidence, expanded
teaching
repertoire and professional reflection. Teachers also
increase their sense of efficacy, their belief that
they can provide a positive change in student learning.
Eastern Michigan University teacher
preparation
programs aim to produce professional educators who
demonstrate
professional dispositions and communication skills. The
professional educator preparation programs of Eastern
Michigan University seek to create an ethical environment
that promotes teaching and learning and fosters activities
and experiences that enhance candidates' development
of
professional dispositions and communication skills.
We
believe that teachers are change agents in the schools
and communities in which they work and that teachers
must demonstrate effective communication skills in
collaborative
partnerships with students, colleagues, parents and
the
broad community. We also believe that teachers must
appreciate
and practice the principles, ethics, and legal responsibilities
of the teaching profession (Fullan, 1993).
There
is substantial research that addresses
the
idea that teaching is a moral endeavor, and that the
activity
of teaching is itself saturated with moral significance.
In a review of this body of research, Hansen (2001)
notes
that teaching embodies both intellectual and moral
dimensions,
and the claim that teaching is a moral activity calls
attention to teachers' conduct, character, perception,
judgment, understanding, and more. He observes the
following:
"Teaching is undertaken by persons, each bringing to
bear
a particular understanding of what education, students,
and learning are all about and each bringing into the
classroom an individual character as a human being.
Concepts
such as manner, style, and tact illuminate the moral
importance of the person who occupies the role of teacher" (p.841).
Cox
(1982) reiterates this message in the
following:
"the fact that a person is engaged in education implies
that he has accepted certain moral values. Inherent
in
education are such things as a liberal respect for
differing
opinions honestly held, accuracy in thought and expression,
logical thinking, genuine feeling, and a sense of truth
to be sought for and eventually found. To these things
an educator is committed by the very fact of being
an
educator. His stance must include them if he is to
be
credible" (pp.79-80).
Researchers
have also found that teachers
are moral role models, and that many teachers unhesitantly
view
themselves
as such (Murdoch, 1970/1985). Hansen et al., (1994)
found
that teachers feel compelled to enact qualities that
they believe their students both want and need to see
in them:
confidence, poise, fairness, commitment, hopefulness,
consistency, being knowledgeable, and being organized.
Finally, Bergem (1990) in a discussion of the findings
from his interview of teacher education candidates,
notes
that candidates believed that teachers should be role
models who do the right thing while in school and out
of school. He also found that teacher candidates offered
extensive testimony about the positive influence they
believe teachers can have if they "set the right example."
Our
conceptual framework incorporates the moral
dimensions of teaching. We have established expectations
for candidates
that include professional dispositions and communication
skills. Our assessments reflect established criteria
for the professional conduct of teachers found in NEA
Code
of Ethics and INTASC Standards (1993).
Eastern
Michigan University teacher preparation programs
aim to
produce educators for a diverse and democratic society,
educators who celebrate diversity in schools and
communities
and who prepare students for active participation
in
democracy through nurturing critical thinking, creative
thinking, and problem solving within communities. Diversity
in the United States is increasing in most communities
across a broad spectrum of categories: socioeconomic
status
(with greater numbers in poverty), language,
religion, gender, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation,
age and exceptionalities. Banks (1997) refers to
this
trend as the "demographic imperative." Our challenge
as educators is to value diversity and foster equity
(Banks,
2000).
Multicultural
perspectives permeate the teacher
preparation program at Eastern Michigan University.
In
addition, multicultural
curriculum and instruction principles guide decisions
about program development (Zeichner, et al. 1998).
We
believe that our teacher preparation program must:
1. Foster the understanding that teaching and learning
occur in socio-political contexts that are not neutral,
but are based on relations of power and privilege.
2. Foster the assumption that all students in elementary
and secondary schools bring skills and experiences that
can be used as resources in teaching and learning; and
that high expectations for learning should be established
for all students.
3. Help prospective teachers learn about students,
families, and communities, and how to use this knowledge
of culturally
diverse students' background in planning, delivering
and evaluating instruction.
4. Help prospective teachers reexamine their own and
others' multiple and interrelated identities formed
through a unique and complex intersection of race, ethnicity,
social class, gender, language, religion, sexual orientation,
and ability.
5. Provide carefully planned and varied field experiences
that explore sociocultural diversity in schools and communities.
6. Help prospective teachers develop the commitment to
be change agents who work to promote greater equity and
social justice in schooling and society.
We
recognize the need for teacher candidates
to
read cultural contexts and adapt to them as professionals.
We know that diversity offers a rich potential for
teaching
and learning experiences. We know that a teacher's
knowledge
of the social and cultural backgrounds of students,
as
well as their individual needs is essential for effective
teaching. Teachers must understand differences and
similarities
across social, cultural and linguistic groups of students
(Banks, 1997).
In
addition to preparing our candidates
to meet
the challenge of teaching diverse groups of students,
we also address
the additional challenge of helping candidates acquire
"reflective and clarified cultural, national, and global
identifications" (Banks, 2001). We provide opportunities
for candidates to rethink concepts about race, culture
and ethnicity. Candidates recognize that knowledge
is
influenced by personal values, social context, and
factors
such as race, class, and gender. They participate in
discussions and activities that contribute to an understanding
and
development of what Banks (2001) describes as "multicultural
citizenship education."
Finally,
we attempt to examine and alter
undemocratic
and biased teaching behaviors of future teachers by
developing
in them the skills and attitudes necessary to become
contributing and vital members of society (Cunat, 1996).
We try to
build a "democratic education," a curriculum "integrated
with social development and social conscience: a sense
that individuals can have a reflective and dynamic
impact
on the society around them and that individuals carry
a responsibility to effect necessary social and political
change" (Cunat, 1996, p. 130). Course requirements,
class
discussions and activities in SOFD 328, Schools in
a Multicultural Society, help candidates develop an
informed
and more
thoughtful position on the purpose of schools in a
culturally
diverse democratic society. Candidates develop skills
that will help them teach students the skills of critical
thinking, creative thinking and problem solving needed
to participate in a democratic society.
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