Significance, as it applies to preservation, can be explained
through the analogy of a "significance thermometer."
Consider the following example which shows how factors may affect
historic significance.
Chapter III
THE DESIGNATION AND DOCUMENTATION
OF HISTORIC
STRUCTURES
The historic importance of a property greatly determines how that property is considered by various organizations and agencies. The term generally used to describe its relative importance is historic "significance." A property's "significance" can be established based on two primary factors-its historical importance and/or its architectural importance. Sometimes both contribute to the significance of a property, in which case its importance is enhanced.
A variety of factors may increase a historic property's significance; the more that apply, the greater the level of significance. As based on the document, The National Register's Criteria for Evaluation, the historic significance of a proposed property could be established based on any of four criteria:
1. The property represents an important event or events that have contributed to the broad patterns of our history. The history represented can be of national, state, or local importance.For instance, if a city was established along an important rail line, an original railway station or complex of buildings from those early years, if they still exist, could be considered significant to that city's local history.
2. The property is associated with the life or lives of persons significant in our past.
This is the "George-Washington-Slept-Here" category. Generally, the birthplace and gravesite of important personages are not encouraged for designation, since they are not elements uniquely representative of the significant years in the person's life. Buildings or sites that relate more directly to the time when that person was active are considered more significant. Examples might be Fort Necessity battlefield, where George Washington fought his first battle, or Ford Theater, where Abraham Lincoln was shot.
3. The property embodies distinctive features of type, period, method of construction, or high craftsmanship or artistic quality.
This category deals with architectural significance. A building may not have historical importance, as far as being associated with an important event or person, but may be a good example of an architectural style or type of construction from a certain period.
It is important to be selective in considering buildings or structures under this category, for every building represents a period and a style, even if that style is the common "vernacular" style. Therefore, selections should be based on how representative the building is of that style. Does it still have most of its original features? Is the building a good representative of one style, or is it diluted with features from a number of styles? Is the style very common, or is it a rare example? In other words, only the best should be chosen as representatives in this category.
4. The property and its site yield important information from a prehistoric period.
Important evidence of older cultures can be found through archeological exploration. This evidence should be analyzed and documented as a historic resource before construction is permitted.
Significance, as it applies to preservation, can be explained
through the analogy of a "significance thermometer."
Consider the following example which shows how factors may affect
historic significance.
Example: Assume a turn-of-the-century home is being considered for inclusion as a locally designated historic structure. First, its age indicates it is a good candidate; its position on the "significance thermometer" is thereby elevated. Because the house is also a good example of a particular architectural style (say, Queen Anne), its significance is even more enhanced. If it has not been altered over time, and is still largely in its original condition, its significance level rises even more. Perhaps it was once owned by an important family in the town's history; this would elevate it even higher.
This process of evaluation can continue until all relevant information has been included. Through good historic research, a combination of these factors would indicate that a property should certainly be considered as locally significant.
However, what if a more modern concrete porch had been built on the front of the house? This would lower its level of significance. What if the house had been moved to a new site? This would also decrease its level of historic significance, for the historic integrity of a property is negatively impacted by moving it from its original location. The degree of significance lost is affected by such factors as the appropriateness of the new site, the distance moved, and the number of changes necessary as a result of the move (e.g., building a new foundation). Up and down goes the significance thermometer as each of these factors is considered. Although numbers cannot and should not be assigned for this evaluation, local historians intuitively determine whether the property has a high enough significance level to qualify for designation.
Each community should determine for itself what minimum level
of significance is appropriate for designation and regulation.
In some communities, where residents are supportive of preservation,
the list of designated properties may be more inclusive than in
communities where designation and regulation have more opposition.
For the former, the minimum threshold is low, and many properties
will have enough significance to be protected. The latter community
would be more restrictive, and only those properties high on the
significance thermometer would likely be included.
In addition to the four criteria described above for determining historical significance, there have also been guidelines established for types of properties that are not generally considered appropriate for designation. Properties generally considered inappropriate for inclusion on the National Register include:
1. Cemeteries or birthplaces, unless such a property is the only remaining evidence from a historical person's past. These properties are not considered appropriate because virtually every important person has a birthplace and gravesite, and these sites have nothing to do with the person's historical importance. A cemetery or birthplace may qualify based on other criteria, however. For instance, Mount Auburn cemeteryMount Auburn cemetery in BostonBoston, Massachusetts could be listed because it represents the first and best known of the 19th century cemeteries laid out in the English landscape style.2. Religious properties are generally excluded unless they have architectural significance. Every community has an abundance of prominent religious structures, and thus such a structure must have additional significance to qualify. It has been seen, however, that many churches have been included on the basis of architectural merit.
3. Structures which have been moved from their original sites are considered to have lost much of their integrity, and thus significance, and such designations are generally discouraged.
4. Similarly, reconstructed buildings are generally not included, except in cases where the work has been done authentically and is part of a larger master plan.
5. Statues and commemorative structures are discouraged for nomination, since they do not represent an event or person directly, but only indirectly as a commemorative.
6. It is generally accepted that buildings must be at least fifty years old to be considered for listing.
The generally accepted criterion that a building must be at least
50 years old to be considered historically significant is now
being reconsidered, for there are many properties not yet that
old that are obviously important. Some may even be under threat
of demolition. As an example, one of Frank Lloyd Wright's
most signficant buildings, the Guggenheim Museum
in New York City, was for many years threatened
with demolition because it was considered a relatively small and
inefficient building on a prime development parcel just across
from New York City's Central Park. Because it was built in the
early 1950s, the structure was neither protected nor officially
recognized as a landmark building. Clearly, the building need
the protection of historic designation, but because it was less
than fifty years old it had not been given.
Other newer buildings that need recognition are the fast-disappearing
examples of roadside commercial structures, such as diners, motels,
and even the original McDonald's. The best examples
of these building types need to be identified, designated, and
protected as important elements of our mid-20th-century lifestyle.
(The Henry Ford Museum has added a 1946
diner, a 1941 Texaco gas station and a 1960 Holiday Inn room to
its collection, but of course this is not as desirable as preserving
such structures at their original sites.) Fortunately, Dulles
Airport near Washington, D.C.,
built in 1961 and recognized for its distinct modern design, has
already been listed on the National Register, and sets a precedent
for other more recent buildings.
However, preservationists sometimes have difficulty accepting such structures for National Register status, and there is considerable debate regarding this question, as is evidenced by the comments of landscape historian John B. Jackson in an interview:
"Ridiculous. I don't think it's necessary for the future to know about McDonald's. It is unnecessary to burden the future with a past that has no significance to it."
In Jackson's view legitimate landmarks derive from "an intentional
artistic impulse." Motels and fast-food stands need not
apply. "I don't think commercial buildings deserve any consideration
as works of art," he says flatly.
When designation of a property is desired, the first step is to research and document the property. A search of literature may yield important information. A good place to begin the search is with the owner of the property, or a former owner. Either may have old clippings about the building, or even plans from the original construction, or from a later construction project that may include good information about original conditions. The architectural firm that originally designed the building may still be in business, and its files may include invaluable materials that could not be procurred in any other way.
Sources may also include the local history section at a nearby library. Often these shelves contain large collections of local archival information, and although they may be difficult to search through, they can be well worth the effort. Sometimes a book is written about a historic structure to commemorate its construction and dedication, and such a volume may have old photographs and stories of important personages from the period of its construction. The date of construction can also be used as a guide in reviewing old professional journals, which may have pertinent information (e.g., an article on the building describing the completion of its construction). State libraries and state archives may be useful, especially when deciphering the larger historical context in which a building exists. For a very significant property, the Library of Congress also may be contacted for additional resources.
Dr. Leonard Eaton, Professor Emeritus of Architectural History at the University of Michigan, has documented a number of buildings throughout the Midwest. In the process, he devised a number of "rules of thumb" to use when researching historic buildings.
1. If at all possible, go and look at the building itself. Much can be gained by touching the details and walking through the spaces.2. Find all the documentation still available. Often you will find that much of the work has been done for you. Sometimes a complete set of plans can be found in the attic or a file somewhere, or old photographs and histories can provide evidence of original materials and furnishings. Don't assume that this information must be developed from second or third-party sources.
3. Never overlook the obvious. Your best source of information may, for instance, not be the historians and "experts," but may be a custodian who still works in the building.
4. Look for the setting and its influence. A building is always better understood when it is put in its context, both of time and place. Try to visualize the environment at the time of its construction, as well as the social setting. This may lead to important clues to finding elements that are historically significant but could easily be overlooked in its current context.
Many 19th-century cities attracted artists who came to a town to draw birds-eye perspectives of the city. They would print lithographic copies of their drawing and then sell them to residents. These drawings were carefully prepared, for the sales potential depended on having accurate depictions in which residents could pick out views of their own homes or businesses and those of their neighbors. A good quality lithograph, suitable for framing, could at that time be purchased for only two to five dollars, so many were purchased and are still readily found.
The drawing and selling of city lithographs flourished from the
1850s until about the end of the century. They are seen by historians
as rich and accurate historical documents that may generally be
relied on to accurately portray a city during a particular time
period. An excellent collection of city lithographs has been
assembled by urban historian John Reps in his book, Views and
Viewmakers of Urban America.
Another source of accurate historical information on buildings that is still readily available is Sanborn Insurance Maps. Published from the mid-1800s to the mid-1950s, they show in detail and great accuracy every building in a town, including its size, type of construction, condition and use. Although developed primarily for insurance purposes, these maps have become important historical documents. Their publication dates vary from city to city; during certain periods they were released almost yearly, while during other periods the time between dates of publication may have been ten or twenty years. The maps are deposited in the Library of Congress, and many are available on microfilm and accessible at larger libraries. University Publications of America, of Bethesda, Maryland is now providing Sanborn maps on order, and has access to a collection comprising approximately 280,000 maps dating primarily from the early 1900s to 1990 and covering more than 3,500 U.S. cities and towns.
Sanborn maps are indispensable for studying the changes of urbanized areas over decades. Used with census information, archival photographs, old city directories and gazetteers, and other research materials, they can provide the following information:
- Identifying buildings and neighborhoods at various periods in history- Tracing changes in a neighborhood's ethnic makeup and population density
- Examining local businesses and viewing changes in a city's business and industrial base
- Studying the development of water, rail, and highway transportation in urban areas
- Assessing the environmental impact of new developments.
In addition to the documentation techniques described above, a
visual survey-which can include measured drawings and photography-is
a critical component in the documentation process.
Measured drawings are prepared in two steps. First, sketch plans must be made at the site, including drawings of the various floor plans, elevations and special details. It is usually easiest to draw on tracing paper placed over a grid of 1/4 inch squares, both of which are taped to a firm but lightweight drawing board. Each grid square can represent a scale for drawing-for plans and elevations a common scale is one square equals one square foot, or 1/4 inch=1 foot.
Care must be taken to record information clearly, neatly, accurately
and unambiguously. To avoid a misinterpretation of the information,
it is usually best for the person who will prepare the finished
drawings to be the one sketching the drawings and recording information.
From these sketches, final drawings are prepared Guidelines
established by the Historic American Buildings Survey should be followed for the drawings. These
guidelines define drafting techniques and allow for uniformity
of documents as well as clear reproduction capability.
Rectified photography is a relatively simple technique. A grid is drawn over a photograph of a structure. Targets are placed on the structure at a set distance apart when the photo is taken, and they can be used to define the scale for a superimposed grid. The measurements on an elevation can be derived directly from the photo rather than from on-site measuring. Obviously, such derived measurements will not be as accurate as actual site measurements, but in many instances they will be sufficiently precise, and in some instances, such as a random stone wall, the technique may be preferable.
A drawback of rectified photography is that it can only be used
on flat elevations. Recesses or projections will change in scale,
and angled surfaces will be distorted unless separately photographed
with the camera lens parallel to the angled surface.
Photogrammetry is an expensive and highly
accurate method for recording structures using paired photos which
can be viewed with a stereoscopic viewer. It allows for a highly
accurate recording of all features, even highly complex ones,
and is recognized as the most sophisticated method for uniform
and accurate documentation.
Based on the factors listed previously, a documented building may be nominated for designation as a "Certified Historic StructureCertified Historic Structure (CHSCHS)." Information justifying this status is first submitted to the State Historic Preservation OfficeState Historic Preservation Office, where it is reviewed. If approved it is listed on the State Register of Historic Places and then sent on to the federal offices at the Secretary of the InteriorSecretary of the Interior in Washington, where if once again approved it is given a National RegisterNational Register of Historic Places listing.
The documentation of a property should include the following information:
Historic and common name of building - Many times a building is referred to by the name of current or recent tenants, although its historic significancesignificance comes from a previous time period. If the historic name is more associated with its significance, it should be used.Owner, address and legal property description - It is important to define exactly what the property being designated includes and who owns it.
Date of construction - If the property has had later additions these dates should also be included and it should be indicated if they are part of the designation.
Architectural Style and Period - It is always necessary to describe the architectural style of a building, whether or not this is the basis for designation. The architectural period represented by the building should also be specified.
Condition of building - The structure's condition should be described as Excellent, Good, Fair, Deteriorated, or Ruins. The description should indicate whether its original integrity is unaltered or altered and if it has been moved from its original site.
Narrative Descriptions - Brief descriptions should be included that indicate both the building's historical importance and its architectural significancesignificance. Unusual or important historical events with which the building was associated should be noted, as well as unique architectural components that are representative of certain features or stylistic elements.
Photographs - Documentation should include photographs of all the significant elevations, as well as a photograph showing the building in its surrounding context.
Preparer - Finally, the nomination form should indicate who has prepared the submission and the date of submission.
Because of concern that historic designation would give the federal government new powers over individual property owners, the designation provisions in the Historic Preservation Act of 1966Historic Preservation Act of 1966 do not allow for any direct regulatory power over private properties. In an effort to stay out of private affairs, the Act said any listing of a property on the National RegisterNational Register of Historic Places would only be done with the permission of the owner. Without that permission, a historically significant property would be listed only as "Register Eligible."
Once a property has been certified and listed on the National
Register it generally cannot lose this designation, even if the
owner requests it. The same is true of buildings that have been
designated contributing historic structures in a certified historic
district.
Sometimes it is necessary to remove a historic designation. "Dedesignation" may be requested for a variety of reasons. Perhaps a formerly historic structure has been so changed-through conscious alterations, through catastrophic damage (weather or fire), or neglect-that such designation is no longer appropriate. The procedure for designation of historic structures is well understood, has been done many thousands of times, and has been upheld in courts as constitutionally valid. However, what is the procedure for removing such designation? The precedents for this are minimal, and not well understood.
The procedure for removal is determined by how the ordinance for designation was written. Under some ordinances designation is so fixed that removing such designation can only be accomplished either by abolishing the Historic District Commission or removing the entire ordinance. This not only removes designation from the property in question, but also from all other properties subject to that ordinance or commission.
Various communities have different procedures for dedesignation. In Detroit, the City Charter states that once a historic district is approved, properties can only be removed with a majority vote of the property owners within the district.
What if an owner of a designated historic property consciously makes inappropriate changes or demolishes a structure without approval-what can be done? Often the penalty for such actions is so low (e.g., $500 fine) that it doesn't discourage such action. However, the owner may be sued in court to have the structure restored (rebuilt), with a cloud on the property title until such work is completed. This is not a satisfactory situation to be in, however, since the destruction has already commenced. Commonly, a commission and its community will react: "Well, we lost this one, but let's make sure it doesn't happen again."
In some cities, such as Ann Arbor, Michigan, inappropriate alterations that have not been approved are treated as building violations, and owners can be ticketed by the enforcing agency (e.g., the city's Building Department). In Grand Rapids, Michigan such changes can be prosecuted as misdemeanors, and owners can go to jail for up to 90 days.
The best way to avoid such problems is to have an ongoing program of community surveillance and education. Neighborhood residents must be aware of the ordinance and should be able to recognize when work does not follow its provisions. It is also helpful to have historic district commissioners serve as monitors for projects under construction.